Advanced Dairy Chemistry (eBook)
XXIV, 778 Seiten
Springer New York (Verlag)
978-0-387-84865-5 (ISBN)
The Advanced Dairy Chemistry series was first published in four volumes in the 1980s (under the title Developments in Dairy Chemistry) and revised in three volumes in the 1990s. The series is the leading reference source on dairy chemistry, providing in-depth coverage of milk proteins, lipids, lactose, water and minor constituents.
Advanced Dairy Chemistry Volume 3: Lactose, Water, Salts, and Minor Constituents, Third Edition, reviews the extensive literature on lactose and its significance in milk products. This volume also reviews the literature on milk salts, vitamins, milk flavors and off-flavors and the behaviour of water in dairy products.
Most topics covered in the second edition are retained in the current edition, which has been updated and expanded considerably. New chapters cover chemically and enzymatically prepared derivatives of lactose and oligosaccharides indigenous to milk.
P.L.H. McSweeney Ph.D. is Associate Professor of Food Chemistry and P.F. Fox Ph.D., D.Sc. is Professor Emeritus of Food Chemistry at University College, Cork, Ireland.
P.F. Fox Ph.D., D.Sc. is Professor Emeritus of Food Chemistry and P.L.H. McSweeney Ph.D., is a Senior Lecturer in Food Chemistry at University College, Cork, Ireland.
The Advanced Dairy Chemistry series was first published in four volumes in the 1980s (under the title Developments in Dairy Chemistry) and revised in three volumes in the 1990s. The series is the leading reference source on dairy chemistry, providing in-depth coverage of milk proteins, lipids, lactose, water and minor constituents.Advanced Dairy Chemistry Volume 3: Lactose, Water, Salts, and Minor Constituents, Third Edition, reviews the extensive literature on lactose and its significance in milk products. This volume also reviews the literature on milk salts, vitamins, milk flavors and off-flavors and the behaviour of water in dairy products.Most topics covered in the second edition are retained in the current edition, which has been updated and expanded considerably. New chapters cover chemically and enzymatically prepared derivatives of lactose and oligosaccharides indigenous to milk.P.L.H. McSweeney Ph.D. is Associate Professor of Food Chemistry and P.F. Fox Ph.D., D.Sc. is Professor Emeritus of Food Chemistry at University College, Cork, Ireland.
P.F. Fox Ph.D., D.Sc. is Professor Emeritus of Food Chemistry and P.L.H. McSweeney Ph.D., is a Senior Lecturer in Food Chemistry at University College, Cork, Ireland.
Advanced Dairy Chemistry 2
Contributors 5
Preface to the Third Edition 7
Preface to the Second Edition 8
Preface to the First Edition 9
Contents 11
Lactose: Chemistry and Properties 23
1.1 Introduction 23
1.2 Properties of Lactose 27
1.2.1 Modification of the Concentration of Lactose in Milk Through Genetic Engineering 30
1.2.2 Nutritional Problems Associated with Lactose 30
1.2.3 Production and Utilization of Lactose 31
1.3 Derivatives of Lactose 32
1.4 Significance of Lactose in Dairy Products 34
1.5 Conclusion 35
References 35
Solid and Liquid States of Lactose 38
2.1 State Diagram of Lactose 40
2.2 Stickiness and Caking 43
2.3 Crystallization and Recrystallization 46
2.4 Crystallization and Recrystallization in Frozen Systems 51
References 51
Significance of Lactose in Dairy Products 55
I. Manufacture of Sweetened Condensed Milk and the Significance of Lactose Therein 56
I.1. Introduction 56
I.2. Variants of Sweetened Condensed Milk 58
I.3. Standards for Sweetened Condensed Milk 58
I.4. Limitations of Lactose in Foods 61
I.5. Crystallization of Lactose in Sweetened Condensed Milk and Related Products 62
I.6. Seeding Sweetened Condensed Milk with Lactose 63
I.6.1. Derivation of Equations 65
I.7. Effect of Crystal Size on the Viscosity of Sweetened Condensed Milk 67
I.7.1. Heat Treatment Before Evaporation 67
I.8. Controlling Lactose Crystal Size by Cooling 69
I.8.1. Seeding/Cooling Temperature 69
I.8.2. Cooling After Complete Crystallization of Lactose 72
I.8.3. Effect of Lactose Crystallization on the Water Activity of Sweetened Condensed Milk 73
I.8.4. Effect of Lactose Crystallization on the Measurement of Moisture/Total Solids in Sweetened Condensed Milk 73
I.8.5. Effect of Water Activity on the Microbial Stability of Sweetened Condensed Milk 74
References 75
II. Lactose in Dulce de Leche 78
II.1. Introduction 78
II.2. Technology 79
II.3. Significance of Lactose in Dulce de Leche 81
II.3.1. Lactose Crystallization 81
II.3.1.1. Texture 81
II.3.2. Non-enzymatic Browning Reactions 85
II.3.2.1. Colour and Flavour 86
II.3.2.2. Nutritional Value 86
II.4. Conclusions 87
References 87
III. Significance of Lactose in Ice Cream 89
III.1. Overview of Ice Cream Ingredients and Manufacture 89
III.2. Sources of Lactose in Ice Cream 91
III.3. Contribution of Lactose to Freezing Point Depression 92
III.4. Potential for Lactose Crystallization 94
III.5. Development of Lactose-Reduced Products 96
References 97
IV. Significance of Lactose in Milk Powders 100
IV.1. Milk Protein Standardization 101
IV.2. Behaviour of Lactose During Spray Drying 101
IV.2.1. Hygroscopicity 102
IV.2.2. Lactose Crystallization in Milk Powders 103
IV.3. Microstructure of Milk Powders 104
IV.4. Phase Transitions During Milk Drying 105
IV.4.1. Glass Transition 106
IV.4.2. Caking 107
IV.4.3. Stickiness and Caking of Milk Powders 109
IV.4.4. Instantization/Agglomeration 111
IV.4.5. Maillard Reactions 112
IV.5. Some Ingredient Applications Where the Role of Lactose Is Emphasized 113
IV.5.1. Infant Milk Formula 113
IV.5.2. Chocolate 114
IV.6. Role of Lactose in Microencapsulation 114
References 115
V. Reduced Lactose and Lactose-Free Dairy Products 118
V.1. Introduction 118
V.2. Methods for the Manufacture of Lactose-Free or Lactose-Reduced Milk Products 118
V.2.1. Treatment of Milk with beta-Galactosidase 119
V.2.1.1. Reduced-Lactose or Lactose-Free Fluid Milks 119
V.2.1.2. Lactose-Free Ice Creams 120
V.2.1.3. Condensed Milks 121
V.2.2. Reduction of Lactose by Membrane Technology Techniques 121
V.2.3. Reduction of Lactose in Milk by Chromatographic Methods 123
V.3. Conclusion 123
References 123
Production and Uses of Lactose 125
4.1 Theoretical Approach to Production 125
4.2 Edible-Grade Lactose 128
4.3 Pharmaceutical-Grade Lactose 133
4.3.1 Anhydrous Lactose 134
4.3.2 Spray-Dried Lactose 134
4.4 Uses of Lactose 134
4.5 The Future for Lactose 138
References 139
Galacto-oligosaccharides and Other Products Derived from Lactose 141
5.1 Introduction 141
5.1.1 Definitions 142
5.2 History of Prebiotics 144
5.2.1 The Genus Bifidobacterium 144
5.2.2 Bifidus Factors 144
5.2.3 Oligosaccharides as Prebiotics 145
5.2.4 Use of beta-Galactosidases for the Synthesis of Oligosaccharides 147
5.3 Chemistry - Structures and Reactivity 147
5.4 Synthesis and Manufacturing Methods 148
5.4.1 beta-Galacto-oligosaccharides 149
5.4.1.1 Type of Enzyme and Mechanisms of Reaction 151
5.4.1.2 Microorganisms Used to Produce beta-Galactosidases (Lactase) 154
5.4.1.3 Some Suppliers of beta -Galactosidases (EC 3.2.1.23) 157
5.4.1.4 Investigations of the Major Transgalactosylation Enzyme Sources 157
Aspergillus oryzae and Aspergillus niger 159
Bacillus circulans 159
Streptococcus thermophilus 160
Lactobacillus Species 160
Bifidobacterium Species 161
5.4.1.4.1 Other Yeasts 162
Cryptococcus laurentii 162
Sporobolomyces singularis (syn. Bullera singularis) 162
Sterigmatomyces elviae 162
Rhodotorula minuta 163
Geotrichum amycelium (syn. Trichosporon ovoides) 163
Sirobasidium magnum 163
5.4.1.4.2 The Extremophiles 164
Sulfolobus solfataricus 164
Thermotoga maritima 164
Thermus Species 165
5.4.1.4.3 Thermoactinomycetes 165
Saccharopolyspora rectivirgula 165
5.4.1.5 Development of Modified Galacto-oligosaccharide Structures 165
5.4.2 Lactulose 168
5.4.3 Lactosucrose (beta-d-Gal-(1rarr4)-alpha-d-Glu-(1rarr2)-beta-d-Fru) 170
5.4.4 Lactitol 172
5.4.5 Lactobionic Acid 173
5.4.6 Tagatose 174
5.5 Commercial Producers and Products 175
5.5.1 Estimated Production of the Lactose Derivatives 175
5.5.2 beta -Galacto-oligosaccharides 176
5.5.3 Lactulose 176
5.5.3.1 Purity of Lactulose 178
5.5.4 Lactosucrose 178
5.5.5 Lactitol 179
5.5.6 Lactobionic Acid 179
5.5.7 Tagatose 179
5.6 Analytical Methods 181
5.7 Properties 183
5.7.1 Properties of Oligosaccharides 183
5.7.2 Properties of Lactulose 185
5.7.3 Properties of Lactosucrose 186
5.7.4 Properties of Lactitol 186
5.7.5 Properties of Lactobionic Acid 186
5.7.6 Properties of d-tagatose 187
5.8 Uses and Applications 187
5.8.1 Galacto-oligosaccharides 187
5.8.2 Lactulose 188
5.8.3 Lactosucrose 189
5.8.4 Lactitol 189
5.8.5 Lactobionic Acid 189
5.8.6 Tagatose 190
5.9 Physiological and Health Effects 190
5.9.1 Dental Health 191
5.9.2 Prevention and Treatment of Constipation 191
5.9.3 Treatment of Hepatic Encephalopathy 191
5.9.4 Prebiotic Effects 192
5.9.4.1 Applications of GOSs in Infant Nutrition 193
5.9.4.2 Impacts on the Microbiota Composition in Adults 196
5.9.4.3 Fermentation of Lactose Derivatives by the Intestinal Microbiota 198
5.9.4.4 Colon Cancer 198
5.9.4.5 Mineral Absorption 198
5.9.4.6 Colonization Resistance 199
5.9.4.7 Inflammatory Bowel Disease 200
5.9.4.8 Glycaemic Index, Weight Management and Serum Lipids 201
5.9.5 Farm and Companion Animals 202
5.10 Product Safety, Dose Rates and Regulatory Issues 202
5.10.1 Galacto-oligosaccharides 202
5.10.1.1 Safety Issues and Dose Rates 203
5.10.2 Lactulose 204
5.10.2.1 Toxicological Data 204
5.10.3 Lactosucrose 205
5.10.4 Lactitol 205
5.10.5 Lactobionic Acid 205
5.10.6 Tagatose 206
5.11 Conclusions 206
5.11.1 Future Directions and Challenges 206
References 208
Lactose Malabsorption 222
6.1 The Small Intestine and Digestion of Lactose 222
6.2 Lactase and its Structural Gene, LCT 223
6.3 Symptoms of Lactose Intolerance 224
6.4 Diagnosis of Lactase Non-Persistence/Persistence 225
6.4.1 The Blood Glucose Test 226
6.4.2 The Breath Hydrogen Test 226
6.5 Worldwide Distribution of Lactase Persistence 227
6.6 Identifying the Causes of Lactase Persistence 229
6.7 Identification of Causal Variations 232
6.8 Evolutionary Considerations 235
6.8.1 Genetic Adaptation 235
6.8.2 Cultural Adaptation 236
6.9 Selective Forces 237
6.10 The Role of Other Factors that Influence Lactase Expression 239
6.11 Present-Day Health and Medical Considerations 239
6.12 Genetic Testing 240
6.13 Summary 241
References 241
Non-Enzymatic Degradation Pathways of Lactose and Their Significance in Dairy Products 249
7.1 Introduction 249
7.2 Isomerization and Degradation of Sugars 251
7.2.1 Lactulose 254
7.3 Chemistry of the Maillard Reaction 259
7.3.1 Reaction Mechanisms and Pathways 259
7.3.2 Reactions of Amadori and Hynes Products 261
7.3.3 Deoxyglycosuloses 263
7.3.4 Formation of Low Molecular Weight Maillard Products in Dairy Products 265
7.4 Factors that Influence Maillard Reactions 270
7.4.1 Reactants 270
7.4.2 pH 273
7.4.3 Mutarotation 274
7.4.4 Moisture Content and aw 275
7.4.5 Miscellaneous Factors 277
7.5 Interaction of Oxidation and Maillard Reactions 278
7.6 Methods for the Analysis of LA-Transformation Products and Degradation Products of Lactose 281
7.7 Methods for Monitoring Maillard Reactions in Milk Products 282
7.7.1 Determination of Available Lysine 283
7.7.2 Determination of Amadori Products: The Furosine Assay 284
7.7.3 Determination of Amadori Products: Direct Determination of Lactulosyl Lysine 286
7.7.4 Determination of 5-hydroxymethyl-2-furaldehyde 286
7.7.5 Fluorescence Spectroscopy 287
7.7.6 bepsi-Pyrrole Lysine 287
7.7.7 Carboxymethyl Lysine 287
7.7.8 Pyrraline 288
7.7.9 Immunoassays 288
7.8 Consequences of Undesirable Maillard Reactions in Milk Systems 289
7.8.1 Nutritional Implications 289
7.8.2 Milk Protein Allergy 292
7.8.3 Changes in Functional Properties 293
7.8.4 Formation of Toxic Compounds 295
7.8.4.1 Furan 295
7.8.4.2 Acrylamide and Other Vinylogous Maillard Reaction Products 295
7.8.4.3 Other Toxic Compounds 296
7.9 The Future 296
References 297
Milk Oligosaccharides 313
8.1 Introduction 313
8.2 The Chemical Structures of Human Milk Oligosaccharides: Analytical Methods 314
8.3 Human Milk Oligosaccharides: Quantitative Aspects 337
8.4 Biosynthesis of Milk Oligosaccharides 338
8.5 Gastrointestinal Digestion and Absorption of Milk Oligosaccharides 340
8.6 Bifidobacterium Growth Stimulation by Human Milk Oligosaccharides 341
8.7 Milk Oligosaccharides as Anti-Pathogenic Agents 346
8.8 Immuno-Modulating Effect of Milk Oligosaccharides 349
8.9 Chemical Structures and Features of Bovine Milk Oligosaccharides: Milk Oligosaccharides of Other Domestic Farm Animals 352
8.10 Milk Oligosaccharides of Other Mammals 355
8.11 Future Aspects of Milk Oligosaccharides 356
References 358
Milk Salts: Technological Significance 368
9.1 Introduction 368
9.2 Methods of Analysis 370
9.3 Secretion of Milk Salts 371
9.4 Factors Influencing the Milk Salts Equilibria 373
9.4.1 Temperature 373
9.4.2 pH 374
9.4.3 Concentration of Milk 375
9.4.4 Ca Sequestrants or Chelating Agents 376
9.4.5 High Pressure 378
9.5 Impact of Milk Salts on the Buffering Properties of Milk and Dairy Products 379
9.6 Interactions Between Milk Salts and Casein 382
9.6.1 Introduction 382
9.6.2 Casein Micelle Formation 383
9.6.3 Nature of Colloidal Calcium Phosphate 386
9.7 Functional Properties of Milk Products 387
9.7.1 Rennet-Induced Gels 388
9.7.2 Acid-Induced Milk Gels 389
9.7.3 Heat-Induced Whey Protein Gels 390
9.7.4 Cold-Set Whey Protein Gels 391
9.7.5 Emulsions 391
9.7.6 Foaming and Rehydration Properties After Spray Drying 392
9.7.7 Stability of Caseins 392
9.7.7.1 Ethanol 392
9.7.7.2 Heat 394
9.7.8 Cheese Texture and Functionality 396
9.8 Other Uses/Applications of Milk Salts 396
9.9 Concluding Remarks 397
References 397
Nutritional Aspects of Minerals in Bovine and Human Milks 407
10.1 Introduction 407
10.2 Sodium, Chloride and Potassium 415
10.3 Calcium 421
10.4 Phosphorus 428
10.5 Magnesium 430
10.6 Iron 432
10.7 Zinc 436
10.8 Copper 438
10.9 Manganese 439
10.10 Selenium 441
10.11 Iodine 445
10.12 Molybdenum 448
10.13 Cobalt 449
10.14 Fluoride 450
10.15 Boron 451
10.16 Chromium 453
10.17 Arsenic 454
10.18 Nickel 455
10.19 Silicon 456
10.20 Vanadium 457
10.21 Summary and Conclusions 458
References 459
Water in Dairy Products 473
Abbreviations 473
11.1 Introduction 474
11.2 Water Activity 474
11.2.1 Definitions 474
11.2.2 Relevance 477
11.2.3 Models 478
11.3 State Diagrams 484
11.3.1 Freezing and Solubility Lines 485
11.3.2 Glass Transition Line 487
11.4 Water Retention 496
11.5 Water and Molecular Mobility 503
11.5.1 Glass Transition and Mechanical Properties 503
11.5.2 Transport Properties 506
11.5.3 Mobility in the Glass 507
11.5.4 Mobility Above Tg 511
11.5.5 Influence on the Quality of Low-Moisture Foods 514
11.5.5.1 Collapse, Caking, Agglomeration 514
11.5.5.2 Crystallization 516
11.5.5.3 Non-enzymatic Browning and Other Chemical Reactions 517
11.5.6 Stability of Frozen Food Products 520
11.5.6.1 Where Is Tg’ 521
11.5.6.2 Can Tg’ Be Raised? Effect of ‘‘Stabilizers’’ in Ice Cream 522
11.5.6.3 Kinetics of Changes Above Tg’ 523
11.6 Rehydration of Powders 526
11.7 Conclusion 528
References 529
Fat-Soluble Vitamins and Vitamin C in Milk and Milk Products 543
12.1 Introduction 543
12.2 Vitamin A Retinol and beta-Carotene
12.2.1 Chemistry and Analysis 544
12.2.2 Absorption, Metabolism and Excretion 546
12.2.3 Functions of Vitamin A and beta-Carotene 549
12.2.3.1 Vitamin A and Vision 549
12.2.3.2 Physiological Functions of Retinoic Acid 549
12.2.3.3 Antioxidant Activity of Vitamin A and Carotenoids 550
12.2.4 Vitamin A and Carotenoids in Milk 550
12.2.5 Vitamin A Status and Requirements 552
12.3 Vitamin D 554
12.3.1 Chemistry and Analysis 554
12.3.2 Vitamin D Synthesis in the Skin 556
12.3.3 Absorption, Metabolism and Excretion 556
12.3.4 Role of Vitamin D in Bone Metabolism 557
12.3.5 Vitamin D and Bone Disease 558
12.3.6 Extra-Skeletal Roles of Vitamin D 559
12.3.7 Vitamin D in Milk 559
12.3.8 Vitamin D Status and Requirements 560
12.3.8.1 Measurement of Vitamin D Status 560
12.3.8.2 Dietary Vitamin D Requirements 561
12.3.8.3 Vitamin D Toxicity 561
12.4 Vitamin E 562
12.4.1 Chemistry and Analysis 562
12.4.2 Absorption, Metabolism and Excretion 564
12.4.3 Tocopherols and Prevention of Lipid Oxidation 566
12.4.4 Tocopherols and Chronic Diseases 567
12.4.5 Vitamin E in Milk 569
12.4.6 Vitamin E Status and Requirements 571
12.5 Vitamin K 572
12.5.1 Chemistry and Analysis 572
12.5.2 Absorption, Metabolism and Excretion 574
12.5.3 Function of Vitamin K 575
12.5.4 Vitamin K-Dependent Proteins 575
12.5.4.1 Vitamin K-Dependent Coagulation Proteins 575
12.5.4.2 Bone Vitamin K-Dependent Proteins 575
12.5.5 Vitamin K Deficiency and Chronic Disease 576
12.5.6 Vitamin K in Milk 576
12.5.7 Vitamin K Status and Requirements 577
12.5.7.1 Measurement of Vitamin K Status 577
12.5.7.2 Dietary Requirements for Vitamin K 578
12.6 Vitamin C 579
12.6.1 Chemistry and Analysis 579
12.6.2 Absorption, Metabolism and Excretion 581
12.6.3 Antioxidant Activity of Ascorbic Acid 582
12.6.4 Biological Functions 583
12.6.5 Ascorbate and Chronic Disease 585
12.6.6 Vitamin C in Milk and Milk Products 586
12.6.7 Vitamin C Status and Requirements 587
References 588
Vitamins in Milk and Dairy Products: B-Group Vitamins 606
13.1 Introduction 606
13.2 Thiamine (Vitamin B1) 607
13.2.1 Thiamine Function 607
13.2.2 Sources of Thiamine 608
13.2.3 Thiamine Deficiencies 608
13.2.4 Thiamine Supplementation 610
13.3 Riboflavin (Vitamin B2) 610
13.3.1 Functions of Riboflavin 611
13.3.2 Sources of Riboflavin 612
13.3.3 Riboflavin Deficiency 612
13.4 Niacin (Vitamin B3) 614
13.4.1 Function of Niacin 615
13.4.2 Niacin Sources 616
13.4.3 Niacin Deficiencies 616
13.5 Pantothenic Acid (Vitamin B5) 618
13.5.1 Function of Pantothenic Acid 620
13.5.2 Pantothenic Acid Sources 620
13.5.3 Pantothenic Acid Deficiencies 620
13.6 Vitamin B6 623
13.6.1 Functions of Vitamin B6 625
13.6.2 Sources of Vitamin B6 626
13.6.3 Vitamin B6 Deficiencies 626
13.7 Biotin (Vitamin B7) 628
13.7.1 Functions of Biotin 628
13.7.2 Sources of Biotin 629
13.7.3 Biotin Deficiencies 629
13.8 Folates (Vitamin B9) 631
13.8.1 Functions of Folate 632
13.8.2 Sources of Folate 632
13.8.3 Folate Deficiencies 633
13.9 Cobalamin (Vitamin B12) 634
13.9.1 Functions of Cobalamin 636
13.9.2 Sources of Cobalamin 637
13.9.3 Cobalamin Deficiencies 637
13.10 Selected Actual Publications of Meta-analyses Concerning More Than One of the B-Vitamins 641
References 641
Flavours and Off-Flavours in Milk and Dairy Products 646
14.1 Introduction 646
14.2 Reactions Involved in the Formation of Flavour Compounds in Milk and Milk Products 647
14.2.1 Lipid Oxidation 648
14.2.2 Processing-Induced Changes 650
14.2.2.1 Heat-Induced Changes 650
14.2.2.2 Changes Induced by Non-Thermal Processing Technologies 650
14.2.3 Fermentation by Lactic Acid Bacteria 652
14.2.3.1 Glycolysis and Related Reactions 652
14.2.3.2 Citrate Metabolism 654
14.2.3.3 Lipolysis and Related Reactions 655
14.2.3.4 Fatty Acid Metabolism 657
14.2.3.5 Proteolysis and Related Reactions 658
14.2.3.5.1 Hydrolysis of alpha s1-Casein 659
14.2.3.5.2 Hydrolysis of beta-Casein 660
14.2.3.6 Catabolism of Amino Acids 660
14.3 Characteristic Flavours of Milk and Milk Products 664
14.3.1 Aroma of Fluid Milk 664
14.3.2 Aroma of Fat-Enriched Milk Products 666
14.3.3 Aroma of Dried Milk Products 669
14.3.4 Aroma of Fermented Milk Products 673
14.4 Specific Flavours or Off-Flavours in Milk and Milk Products 680
14.5 Taste Compounds in Milk and Milk Products 681
14.6 Conclusions 692
References 693
Physico-chemical Properties of Milk 706
15.1 Introduction 706
15.2 Acid-Base Equilibria 707
15.2.1 The pH and Buffering Properties of Milk 707
15.2.2 Titratable Acidity 709
15.3 Oxidation-Reduction Equilibria 710
15.4 Surface and Interfacial Tension 712
15.5 Optical Properties 714
15.5.1 Light Absorption and Scattering 714
15.5.2 Refractive Index 717
15.6 Freezing Point 718
15.7 Density 720
15.8 Rheological Properties 725
15.8.1 Newtonian Behaviour 725
15.8.2 Non-Newtonian Behaviour in Milks and Creams 729
15.8.3 Effects of Technological Treatments on the Viscosity of Milk 733
15.8.3.1 Heat Treatment 734
15.8.3.2 Renneting 735
15.8.3.3 Acidification 735
15.8.3.4 Storage of UHT Milk 735
15.8.4 Technologically Useful Phenomenological Relationships for Predicting the Rheological Properties of Milks and Creams 736
15.8.5 Rheology of Concentrated Milks 738
15.8.5.1 Dependence of Concentrate Viscosity on Total Volume Fraction 739
15.8.5.2 Phenomenological Relationships for Describing the Non-Newtonian Behaviour of Concentrates 741
15.8.5.3 Phenomenological Description of Time-Dependent Behaviour 744
15.8.6 Rheometry 744
15.9 Thermal Properties 745
15.9.1 Specific Heat Capacity and Enthalpy 745
15.9.2 Thermal Conductivity 750
15.9.3 Thermal Diffusivity 752
15.9.4 Measurement of Thermal Properties 753
15.10 Electrical and Dielectric Properties 753
15.10.1 Electrical Conductivity 753
15.10.2 Dielectric Properties 759
15.11 Acoustic Properties 761
References 764
Index 774
| Erscheint lt. Verlag | 20.4.2009 |
|---|---|
| Zusatzinfo | XXIV, 778 p. |
| Verlagsort | New York |
| Sprache | englisch |
| Themenwelt | Naturwissenschaften ► Chemie |
| Technik ► Lebensmitteltechnologie | |
| Schlagworte | dairy science • food science • Hydrolysis • Lactose • milk • proteins • Vitamin |
| ISBN-10 | 0-387-84865-7 / 0387848657 |
| ISBN-13 | 978-0-387-84865-5 / 9780387848655 |
| Haben Sie eine Frage zum Produkt? |
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