Handbook of Performability Engineering (eBook)

Professor Krishna B. Misra is principal consultant at RAMS Consultants. He has worked for the Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee; the Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, which he also founded; and the Reliability Engineering Centre. In previous years Professor Misra has also been appointed Director-Grade-Scientist at the National Environmental Engineering Research Institute and Director of the North Eastern Regional Institute of Science and Technology.

Foreword 7
Prologue 9
Performability Engineering: Its Promise and Challenge 9
Preface 11
Acknowledgements 15
Contents 17
1 Performability Engineering: An Essential Concept in the 21st Century 49
1.1 Introduction 49
1.2 Technology Can Help 52
1.3 Sustainability Principles 53
1.4 Sustainable Products and Systems 53
1.5 Economic and Performance Aspects 55
1.6 Futuristic System Designs 57
1.7 Performability 58
1.8 Performability Engineering 59
1.9 Conclusion 60
References 60
2 Engineering Design: A Systems Approach 61
2.1 Introduction 61
2.2 The Concept of a System 62
2.3 Characterization of a System 63
2.4 Design Characteristics 65
2.5 Engineering Design 66
2.6 The System Design Process 67
2.7 User Interaction 71
2.8 Conclusions 72
References 72
3 A Practitioner’s View of Quality, Reliability and Safety1 73
3.1 Introduction 73
3.2 Reliability 78
3.3 Testing 81
Safety 83
3.5 Quality, Reliability and Safety Standards 84
3.6 Managing Quality, Reliability and Safety 87
3.7 Conclusions References 88
4 Product Design Optimization 89
4.1 Introduction 89
4.2 Progressive Product Design Circumstances 90
4.3 Evaluation Criteria for Product Designs 91
4.4 Fundamentals of Product Design Optimization 92
4.5 Strategies of Advanced Product Design Optimization 94
4.6 Methodologies and Procedures for Product Design Optimization 98
4.7 Design Optimization for Creativity and Balance in Product Manufacturing 102
4.8 Conclusions References 103
5 Constructing a Product Design for the Environment Process 105
5.1 Introduction 105
5.2 A Decision-making View of Product Development Processes 106
5.3 Environmental Objectives 108
5.4 Product-level Environmental Metrics 110
5.5 The New DfE Process 113
5.6 Analysis of the DfE Process 115
5.7 Conclusions 116
References 117
6 Dependability Considerations in the Design of a System 119
6.1 Introduction 119
6.2 Survivability 119
6.3 System Effectiveness 121
6.4 Attributes of System Effectiveness 122
6.5 Life-cycle Costs (LCC) 125
6.6 System Worth 126
6.7 Safety 126
References 128
7 Designing Engineering Systems for Sustainability 129
7.1 Introduction 129
7.2 Sparing and Availability 132
7.3 Technology Obsolescence 138
7.4 Technology Insertion 144
7.5 Concluding Comments 149
References 149
8 The Management of Engineering 153
8.1 Introduction 153
8.2 From Science to Engineering 155
8.3 Engineering in Society 157
8.4 Conclusions 161
References 163
9 Engineering Versus Marketing: An Appraisal in a Global Economic Environment 165
9.1 Introduction 165
9. 2 Creating Product Values with Low Cost and High Quality 166
9.3 Strategic Implications of Global Standardization 168
9.4 The Dynamic Nature of the Global Strategy 169
9.5 A New Strategy for Dynamic Globalization 171
9.6 Conclusions References 173
10 The Performance Economy: Business Models for the Functional Service Economy 175
10.1 Introduction 175
10.2 The Consequences of Traditional Linear Thought 177
10.3 Resource-use Policies Are Industrial Policies 177
10.4 The Problem of Oversupply 178
10.5 The Genesis of a Sustainable Cycle 180
10.6 The Factor Time – Creating Jobs at Home 181
10.7 Strategic and Organizational Changes 182
10.8 Obstacles, Opportunities, and Trends 184
10.9 New Metrics to Measure Success in the Performance Economy 184
10.10 Regionalization of the Economy 185
10.11 Conclusions 186
References 186
11 Cleaner Production and Industrial Ecology: A Dire Need for 21st Century Manufacturing 187
11.1 Introduction 187
11.2 Different Levels of the Dissemination of Preventive Concepts 189
11.3 Practical Experiences and Types of Embeddedness 190
11.4 Industrial Ecology Programs in the Rotterdam Harbor Area 195
11.5 Lessons Learned on the Introduction and Dissemination of Cleaner Production and Industrial Ecology 199
11.6 Conclusions and Recommendations 201
References 203
12 Quality Engineering and Management 205
12.1 Introduction 205
12.2 Quality Control 207
12.3 Quality Planning 210
12.4 Quality Assurance 211
12.5 Quality Improvement 212
12.6 Quality Costs 212
12.7 Quality Management System 212
12.8 Total Quality Management 213
12.9 ISO Certification 214
12.10 Six Sigma 214
12.11 Product Life-cycle Management 216
12.12 Other Quality Related Initiatives 216
References 218
13 Quality Engineering: Control, Design and Optimization 219
13.1 Introduction 219
Quality 220
13.4 225
line 225
14 Statistical Process Control 235
14.1 Introduction 235
14.2 Control Charts 235
14.3 Control Charts for Variables 238
14.4 Control Charts for Attributes 243
14.5 Engineering Process Control ( EPC) 246
14.6 Process Capability Analysis 246
References 247
15 Engineering Process Control: A Review 251
15.1 Introduction 251
15.2 Notation 254
15.3 Stochastic Models 254
15.4 Optimal Feedback Controllers 257
15.5 Setup Adjustment Problem 262
15.6 Run-to-run Process Control 263
15.7 SPC and EPC as Complementary Tools 267
References 269
16 Six Sigma – Status and Trends 273
16.1 Introduction 273
16.2 Management by Metrics 275
. 276
16.3 Six Sigma Project Selection 276
16.4 DMAIC Methodology 277
16.5 Trends in Six Sigma 279
16.6 Conclusions 280
References 281
17 Computer Based Robust Engineering 283
17.1 Introduction 283
17.2 Robust Software Testing 289
References 292
18 Integrating a Continual Improvement Process with the Product Development Program 293
18.1 Introduction 18.2 Define a Quality Management 293
System 293
18.3 Deploy the Quality Management System 297
18.4 Continual Improvement 298
18.5 Conclusions 298
References 299
19 Reliability Engineering: A Perspective 301
19.1 Introduction 301
19.2 Problems of Concern in Reliability Engineering 309
19.3 Reliability Prediction Methodology 314
19.4 System Reliability Evaluation 322
19.5 Alternative Approaches 327
19.6 Reliability Design Procedure 328
19.7 Reliability Testing 328
19.8 Reliability Growth 331
References 332
20 Tampered Failure Rate Load-Sharing Systems: Status and Perspectives 339
20.1 Introduction 339
20.2 The Basics of Load-sharing Systems 341
20.3 Load-sharing Models 343
20.4 System Description 347
out-of- 348
Systems with Identical 348
Components 348
20.6 351
out-of- 351
Systems with 351
Non- 351
identical 351
Components 351
20.7 Conclusions 353
References 353
21 O(kn) Algorithms for Analyzing Repairable and Non-repairable k-out-of-n:G Systems 357
21.1 Introduction 357
21.2 Background 358
21.3 Non-repairable k-out-of-n Systems 359
21.4 Repairable k-out-of-n System 362
21.5 Some Special Cases 363
21.6 Conclusions and Future Work 367
References 367
22 Imperfect Coverage Models: Status and Trends 369
22.1 Introduction 369
22.2 A Brief History of Solution Techniques 370
22.3 Fault and Error Handling Models 372
22.4 Single-fault Models 375
Multi-fault Models 378
Markov Models for System Reliability 379
22.7 The Combinatorial Method for System Reliability with Single- fault Models 381
Combinatorial Method for System Reliability with Multi- fault Models 387
22.9 Optimal System Designs 393
22.10 Conclusions and Future Work 394
References 394
23 Reliability of Phased-mission Systems 397
23.1 Introduction 397
23.2 Types of Phased-mission Systems 398
23.3 Analytical Modeling Techniques 399
23.4 BDD Based PMS Analysis 405
23.5 Conclusions 415
References 415
24 Reliability of Semi-Markov Systems in Discrete Time: Modeling and Estimation 417
24.1 Introduction 417
24.2 The Semi-Markov Setting 418
24.3 Reliability Modeling 421
24.4 Reliability Estimation 423
24.5 A Numerical Example 426
References 427
25 Binary Decision Diagrams for Reliability Studies 429
25.1 Introduction 429
25.2 Fault Trees, Event Trees and Binary Decision Diagrams 430
25.3 Minimal Cutsets 432
25.4 Probabilistic Assessments 436
25.5 Assessment of Large Models 441
25.6 Conclusions 442
References 443
26 Field Data Analysis for Repairable Systems: Status and Industry Trends 445
26.1 Introduction 445
26.2 Dangers of MTBF 446
26.3 Parametric Methods 449
26.4 Mean Cumulative Functions 450
26.5 Calendar Time Analysis 453
26.6 Failure Cause Plots 455
26.7 MCF Comparisons 456
26.8 MCF Extensions 458
26.9 Conclusions 459
References 460
27 Reliability Degradation of Mechanical Components and Systems 461
27.1 Introduction 461
27.2 Reliability Degradation Under Randomly Repeated Loading 462
27.3 Residual Fatigue Life Distribution and Load Cycle- dependent Reliability Calculations 470
27.4 Conclusions 475
References 476
28 New Models and Measures for Reliability of Multi-state Systems 479
28.1 Introduction 479
28.2 Multi-state Reliability Models 480
28.3 Measures Based on the Cumulative Experience of the Customer 483
28.4 Applications of Multi-state Models 488
28.5 Conclusions 491
References 492
29 A Universal Generating Function in the Analysis of Multi-state Systems 495
29.1 Introduction 495
29.2 The RBD Method for MSS 496
29.3 Combination of Random Processes Methods and the UGF Technique 501
29.4 Combined Markov-UGF Technique for Analysis of Safety-critical Systems 506
29.5 Conclusions 510
30 New Approaches for Reliability Design in Multistate Systems 513
30.1 Introduction 513
31 New Approaches to System Analysis and Design: A Review 525
31.1 Introduction 525
31.2 General Topics of Applications of Possibility Theory and Evidence Theory 528
31.3 Theoretical Development in the Area of Reliability 529
31.4 Computational Developments in the Reliability Area 532
31.5 Performability Improvement on the Use of Possibility Theory and Evidence Theory 537
31.6 Developing Trends of Possibility and Evidence- based Methods 542
31.7 Conclusions 542
References 543
32 Optimal Reliability Design of a System 547
32.1 Introduction 547
32.2 Problem Description 549
32.3 Problem Formulation 551
32.4 Solution Techniques 554
32.5 Optimal Design for Repairable Systems 561
32.6 Conclusion 562
References 563
33 MIP: A Versatile Tool for Reliability Design of a System 569
33.1 Introduction 569
33.2 Redundancy Allocation Problem 570
33.3 Algorithmic Steps to Solve Redundancy Allocation Problem 572
33.4 Applications of MIP to Various System Design Problems 573
33.5 Conclusions 579
References 579
34 Reliability Demonstration in Product Validation Testing 581
34.1 Introduction 581
34.2 Engineering Specifications Associated with Product Reliability Demonstration 581
34.3 Reliability Demonstration Techniques 583
34.4 Reducing the Cost of Reliability Demonstration 586
34.5 Assumptions and Complexities of Reliability Demonstration 589
34.6 Conclusions 590
References 590
35 Quantitative Accelerated Life-testing and Data Analysis 591
35.1 Introduction 591
35.2 Types of Accelerated Tests 591
35.3 Understanding Accelerated Life Test Analysis 593
35.4 Life Distribution and Life-stress Models 594
35.5 Parameter Estimation 596
35.6 Stress Loading 596
35.7 An Introduction to the Arrhenius Relationship 597
35.8 An Introduction to Two-stress Models 601
35.9 Advanced Concepts 603
References 605
36 HALT and HASS Overview: The New Quality and Reliability Paradigm 607
36.1 Introduction 607
36.2 The Two Forms of HALT Currently in Use 608
36.3 Why Perform HALT and HASS? 611
36.4 A Historical Review of Screening 614
36.5 The Phenomenon Involved and Why Things Fail 616
36.6 Equipment Required 618
36.7 The Bathtub Curve 619
36.8 Examples of Successes from HALT 620
36.9 Some General Comments on HALT and HASS 622
36.10 Conclusions 624
References 625
37 Modeling Count Data in Risk Analysis and Reliability Engineering 627
37.1 Introduction 627
37.2 Classical Regression Models for Count Data 628
37.3 Bayesian Models for Count Data 634
37.4 Conclusions 640
References 640
38 Fault Tree Analysis 643
38.1 Introduction 643
38.2 A Comparison with Other Methods 644
38.3 Fault Tree Construction 645
38.4 Different Forms 646
38.5 Types of Fault Trees Analysis 649
38.6 Static FTA Techniques 650
38.7 Dynamic FTA Techniques 655
38.8 Noncoherent FTA Techniques 656
38.9 Advanced Topics 659
38.10 FTA Software Tools 665
References 665
39 Common Cause Failure Modeling: Status and Trends 669
39.1 Introduction 669
39.2 Causes of CCF 671
39.3 Data Collection and Analysis 682
39.4 Concluding Remarks and Ideas for Further Research 685
References 686
40 A Methodology for Promoting Reliable Human–System Interaction 689
40.1 Introduction 689
40.2 Methodology 692
40.3 Summary 700
References 713
41 Risk Analysis and Management: An Introduction 715
41.1 Introduction 715
41.2 Quantitative Risk Assessment 720
41.3 Probabilistic Risk Assessment 724
41.4 Risk Management 725
41.5 Risk Governance 726
References 726
42 Accident Analysis of Complex Systems Based on System Control for Safety 731
42.1 Introduction 731
42.2 Accident Cause Analysis Based on Safety Control 732
42.3 Accident Occurrence Condition Based on Control Functions for Safety 737
42.4 Conclusions 744
References 744
43 Probabilistic Risk Assessment 747
43.1 Introduction 747
43.2 Steps in Conducting a Probabilistic Risk Assessment 748
43.3 Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) Powered Buses: A PRA Case Study 758
References 765
44 Risk Management 767
44.1 Introduction 767
44.2 Risk Management Principles 774
44.3 Recommendations 784
References 788
45 Risk Governance: An Application of Analytic-deliberative Policy Making 791
45.1 Introduction 791
45.2 Main Features of the IRGC Framework 791
45.3 The Core of the Framework: Risk Governance Phases 793
45.4 Stakeholder Involvement and Participation 797
45.5 Wider Governance Issues: Organizational Capacity and Regulatory Styles 798
45.6 Conclusions 801
Reference 802
46 Maintenance Engineering and Maintainability: An Introduction 803
46.1 Introduction 803
46.2 Approaches to Maintenance 807
46.3 Reliability Centered Maintenance 816
46.4 Total Productive Maintenance 817
46.5 Computerized Maintenance Management System 819
References 820
47 System Maintenance: Trends in Management and Technology 821
47.1 Introduction 821
47.2 Why Does a Component or a System Fail and What Is the Role of Maintenance? 822
47.3 Trends in Management of the Maintenance Process 823
47.4 TPM Implementation 823
47.5 Application of Risk-based Decision Making in Maintenance 824
47.6 Outsourcing of Maintenance and Purchasing of the Required Functions 825
47.7 Trends in Maintenance Technology and Engineering 829
47.8 Condition Monitoring and Condition- based Maintenance Strategy 831
47.9 ICT Application in Maintenance: e- Maintenance 24- 7 832
47.10 Conclusions 834
References 834
48 Maintenance Models and Optimization 837
48.1 Introduction 837
48.2 Previous Contributions 839
48.3 Maintenance Models 841
48.4 Maintenance Policies 844
48.5 Maintenance Optimization and Techniques 847
48.6 Maintenance Miscellanea 848
48.7 Future Developments 850
References 851
49 Replacement and Preventive Maintenance Models 855
49.1 Introduction 855
49.2 Replacement Models 856
49.3 Preventive Maintenance Models 863
49.4 Computer Systems 867
References 870
50 Effective Fault Detection and CBM Based on Oil Data Modeling and DPCA 873
50.1 Introduction 873
50.2 Fault Detection Using MSPC, VAR Modeling and DPCA 875
50.3 CBM Cost Modeling and Failure Prevention 882
50.4 Conclusions 888
References 888
51 Sustainability: Motivation and Pathways for Implementation 891
51.1 Introduction 891
51.2 Environmental Risk Assessment 892
51.3 Ecological Risk Assessment 893
51.4 Sustainability 894
51.5 Pathways to Sustainability 900
51.6 Sustainable Future Technologies 901
References 903
52 Corporate Sustainability: Some Challenges for Implementing and Teaching Organizational Risk Management in a Performability Context 905
52.1 Introduction 905
52.2 Pressure for Change 905
52.3 Internal Control 909
52.4 Risk Assessment and Management 910
52.5 Stakeholder Involvement 912
52.6 Meeting Some Educational Challenges 919
52.7 Conclusion 922
References 922
53 Towards Sustainable Operations Management Integrating Sustainability Management into Operations Management Strategies and Practices 923
53.1 Introduction 923
53.2 Sustainability 924
53.3 Operations as a System to Deliver Stakeholder Value 927
53.4 Integration of Operations and Sustainability Management 931
53.5 Implications for Operations Management 946
53.6 Conclusions 947
References 948
54 Indicators for Assessing Sustainability Performance 953
54.1 Introduction 953
54.2 Non-composite Indicators for Sustainability 955
54.3 Composite Indicators for Sustainability 955
54.4 Recent Methodological Developments in Constructing CSIs 957
54.5 An Illustrative Example 962
54.6 Conclusion 964
References 964
55 Sustainable Technology 967
55.1 Introduction 967
55.2 What Is Technology for? 968
55.3 The Linear Production System 969
55.4 Is Globalization a Solution? 969
55.5 Technology Lock-in 970
55.6 From Techno-centric Concerns to Socio- centric Concerns 971
55.7 Technology and Culture 973
55.8 Technology and Risk 974
55.9 Innovation and Funding of R& D
55.10 Engineering Education for Sustainable Development 976
55.11 Industrial Ecology – The Science of Sustainability 978
55.12 Conclusions 979
References 979
56 Biotechnology: Molecular Design in a Globalizing World 981
56.1 Introduction 981
56.2 What is Biotechnology? 981
56.3 The Importance of ( Bio) Molecular Sciences 982
56.4 Application of Biotechnology in Different Sectors of the Economy 983
56.5 Biotechnology and Sustainable Development 985
56.6 Innovations, Civil Society, and Global Space 987
56.7 Biotechnology, Agriculture, and Regulations 988
56.8 Conclusions 989
References 989
57 Nanotechnology: A New Technological Revolution in the 21st Century 991
57.1 Introduction 991
57.2 Top-down and Bottom-up Design 993
57.3 Applications of Nanotechnology 994
57.4 Applications in the Energy Sector 994
57.5 Environmental Applications 995
57.6 Other Areas of Applications 996
57.7 Market Prospects 997
57.8 Nanotechnology for Sustainability 998
57.9 Risks to the Environment and Human Health 999
57.10 Conclusions References 1000
58 An Overview of Reliability and Failure Mode Analysis of Microelectromechanical Systems ( MEMS) 1001
58.1 Introduction 1001
58.2 MEMS and Reliability 1001
58.3 MEMS Failures Mode and Mechanism Analysis 1002
58.4 Conclusions 1010
References 1010
59 Amorphous Hydrogenated Carbon Nanofilm 1015
59.1 Introduction 1015
59.2 Deposition Methods 1016
59.3 Deposition Mechanism of a-C:H 1018
59.4 Bulk Properties of a-C:H 1019
59.5 Electronic Applications 1020
59.6 Mechanical and Other Properties 1021
References 1027
60 Applications of Performability Engineering Concepts 1033
60.1 Introduction 60.2 Areas of Application 1033
References 1042
61 Reliability in the Medical Device Industry 1045
61.1 Introduction 1045
61.2 Government (FDA) Control 1047
61.3 Medical Device Classification 1047
61.4 Reliability Programs 1048
61.5 Reliability Testing 1053
61.6 MTBF Calculation Methods in Reliability Testing 1054
61.7 Reliability Related Standards and Good Practices for Medical Devices 1055
References 1057
62 A Tasks-based Six Sigma Roadmap for Healthcare Services 1059
62.1 Introduction 1059
62.2 Task Oriented Strategies of Six Sigma 1060
62.3 Six Sigma Roadmap for Healthcare 1062
62.4 Case Study of the Dispensing Process in a Pharmacy 1067
62.5 Conclusions 1070
References 1071
63 Status and Recent Trends in Reliability for Civil Engineering Problems 1073
63.1 Introduction 1073
63.2 The Need for Reliability-based Design in Civil Engineering 1074
63.3 Changes in Design Philosophies – Design Requirements 1074
63.4 Available Analytical Methods – FORM/ SORM, Simulation 1075
C 1080
63.5 Probabilistic Sensitivity Indexes 1083
63.6 Reliability Evaluation Using Simulation 1084
63.7 Reliability Evaluation Using FOSM, FORM, and Simulation 1085
63.8 FORM for Implicit Limit State Functions – The Stochastic Finite Element Method 1087
63.9 Recent Trends in Reliability for Civil Engineering Problems 1088
63.10 Concluding Remarks 1092
References 1092
64 Performability Issues in Wireless Communication Networks 1095
64.1 Introduction 1095
64.2 System Models 1096
64.3 Performability Analysis and Improvement of WCN 1100
64.4 Conclusions 1113
References 1113
65 Performability Modeling and Analysis of Grid Computing 1117
65.1 Introduction 1117
65.2 Grid Service Reliability and Performance 1118
65.3 Star Topology Grid Architecture 1123
65.4 Tree Topology Grid Architecture 1127
65.5 Conclusions 1133
References 1133
66 Status and Trends in the Performance Assessment of Fault Tolerant Systems 1135
66.1 Introduction 1135
66.2 Hardware Fault Tolerant Architectures and Techniques 1136
66.3 Software FT: Learning from Hardware 1139
66.4 Global Fault Tolerance Issues 1142
66.5 Performance Evaluation: A RAM Case Study 1149
66.6 Conclusions and Future Trends 1151
References 1153
67 Prognostics and Health Monitoring of Electronics 1155
67.1 Introduction 1155
67.2 Reliability and Prognostics 1156
67.3 PHM for Electronics 1156
67.4 PHM Concepts and Methods 1157
67.5 Implementation of PHM in a System 1165
67.6 Health Monitoring for Product Take- back and End- of- life Decisions 1166
67.7 Conclusions 1168
References 1168
68 RAMS Management of Railway Tracks 1171
68.1 Introduction 1171
68.2 Railway Tracks 1171
68.3 Degradation Modeling 1175
68.4 Methods for Optimizing Maintenance and Renewal 1179
68.5 Case Studies on RAMS 1182
68.6 Conclusions and Future Challenges 1191
References 1191
69 Cost–Benefit Optimization Including Maintenance for Structures by a Renewal Model 1195
69.1 Introduction 1195
69.2 Preliminaries 1196
69.3 Cost–Benefit Optimization 1200
69.4 Preventive Maintenance 1202
69.5 Example 1206
69.6 Summary 1208
References 1208
70 Reliability and Price Assessment and the Associated Risk Control for Restructured Power Systems 1211
70.1 Introduction 1211
70.2 Reliability and Price Assessment of Restructured Power Systems with the Poolco Market Model 1215
70.3 Reliability and Price Assessment of Restructured Power Systems with the Hybrid Market Model 1218
70.4 A Schema for Controlling Price Volatilities Based on Price Decomposition Techniques 1222
References 1226
71 Probabilistic Risk Assessment for Nuclear Power Plants 1227
71.1 Introduction 1227
71.2 Essential Elements of PRA 1229
71.3 Today’s Challenges 1235
71.4 Outlook 1237
References 1238
72 Software Reliability and Fault-tolerant Systems: An Overview and Perspectives 1241
72.1 Introduction 1241
72.2 The Software Development Process 1243
72.3 Software Reliability Modeling 1244
72.4 Generalized Models with Environmental Factors 1247
72.5 Fault-tolerant Software Systems 1249
72.6 Cost Modeling 1252
References 1254
73 Application of the Lognormal Distribution to Software Reliability Engineering 1257
73.1 Introduction 1257
73.2 Overview of the Lognormal 1258
73.3 Why Are Software Event Rates Lognormal? 1258
73.4 Lognormal Hypotheses 1261
73.5 Empirical Validation 1264
73.6 Future Research Directions 1269
73.7 Conclusions 1271
References 1271
74 Early-stage Software Product Quality Prediction Based on Process Measurement Data 1275
74.1 Introduction 1275
74.2 Quality Prediction Based on Quality Assurance Factors 1276
74.3. Quality Prediction Based on Management Factors 1279
74.4. Relationship Between Product Quality and Development Cost 1283
74.5 Discriminant Analysis 74.6 Conclusion 1284
References 1285
75 On the Development of Discrete Software Reliability Growth Models 1287
75.1 Introduction 1287
75.2 Discrete Software Reliability Growth Models 1289
, 1290
( 1299
( 1301
( 1301
75.3 Conclusion 1301
References 1302
76 Epilogue 1305
76.1 Mere Dependability Is Not Enough 1305
76.2 Sustainability: A Measure to Save the World from Further Deprivation 1306
76.3 Design for Performability: A Long- term Measure 1307
76.4 Parallelism Between Biotechnology and Nanotechnology 1313
76.5 A Peep into the Future 1315
References 1316
About the Editor 1319
About the Contributors 1321
Index 1343