Evolution of Matter and Energy on a Cosmic and Planetary Scale

1 Matter and Energy. The Interplay of Elementary Particles and Elementary Forces.- 1.1 An Attempt to Describe the Natural World Using the Smallest Number of Elementary Phenomena.- 1.2 General Foundations of the Physical Sciences.- 1.2.1 Some principles.- 1.2.2 Some properties of the elementary phenomena are governed by very exact and strong laws of conservation.- 1.2.3 Prohibitions.- 1.3 Elementary Forces and Particles.- 1.3.1 Elementary forces.- 1.3.2 Elementary particles.- 1.4 Elementary Particles.- 1.4.1 "Bricks" and "mortar".- 1.4.2 Creation of the elementary particles.- 1.4.3 "Life" and "death" of elementary particles.- 1.5 The Existence of Atomic Nuclei Is Due to the Forces of Attraction Between Their Nucleons.- 1.5.1 The weak force limits the number of stable hadrons.- 1.5.2 Strong force binds the nucleons together.- 1.5.3 Binding energy of a nucleon.- 1.6 Matter and Free Energy - The Intimate Connection.- 1.7 What Are the Conclusions for the Future Development of Mankind?.- 2 The Universe: How Is It Observed Here and Now? Its Past and Possible Future.- 2.1 What Is the Universe?.- 2.1.1 A definition of the Universe.- 2.1.2 Beginning of the Universe.- 2.2 Expansion of the Universe.- 2.2.1 The red shift.- 2.2.2 The five eras of the Universe.- 2.3 What Is Known About the Universe Today?.- 2.3.1 The average composition of the Universe.- 2.3.2 Chemical composition of cosmic matter.- 2.3.3 Composition of photons.- 2.4 The Universe as a Whole.- 2.5 The Future of the Universe.- 2.6 What Conclusions Can Be Drawn for the Future Development of Mankind?.- 3 The Origin and Nuclear Evolution of Matter.- 3.1 The Creation of the Elementary Particles in the Very Early Universe.- 3.1.1 Unknown phase: Era of superunified force (Planckian Era or Very Hot Era).-3.1.2 Era of grand unified force (Hot Era).- 3.1.3 Era of unified force (Lukewarm Era).- 3.1.4 Cold Era and Very Cold Era.- 3.2 Evolution of the Elementary Particles. A Very Rapid Development in the First Seconds of the Universe.- 3.2.1 Beginning of the Cold Era: Evolution in the "Hadron Epoch".- 3.2.2 Production of hydrogen, deuterium, and helium: The Universe a few seconds old; Lepton Epoch.- 3.2.3 The Photon Epoch, from the first minute to the first million years..- 3.3 The Beginning of the Present Very Cold Era: The "Stars Era". The Evolution of Galaxies, Stars, and Life.- 3.3.1 The largest of the cosmic structures: The development of galaxies.- 3.3.2 The evolution of stars; the nuclear and gravitational reactors.- 3.3.3 The protostar evolves from diffuse matter.- 3.3.4 The longest living stars, those of the Main Sequence.- 3.3.5 Red Giants: The cold stars with the hot interiors.- 3.3.6 Evolution towards hot dense stars.- 3.3.7 Explosion of a supernova: The most spectacular event in a galaxy.- 3.3.8 Extremely dense stars: Neutron stars (pulsars) and black holes.- 3.4 The Burning of Hydrogen - Nucleosynthesis in the Stars.- 3.4.1 Deuterium: The fuel of protostars.- 3.4.2 The slow burning of hydrogen.- 3.4.3 The burning of hydrogen in a catalytic cycle assisted by carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen.- 3.5 Helium also Burns, but under More Extreme Conditions.- 3.5.1 Production of carbon from the burning of helium.- 3.5.2 A very vital step: The production of oxygen.- 3.6 Carbon, Oxygen, and Other Elements of Medium Mass Burn in a Flash..- 3.6.1 Energy production and energy required for nucleosynthesis.- 3.6.2 Iron, the nuclear ash.- 3.7 The Systhesis of Heavy Elements: The Need for an External Energy Source.- 3.7.1 How can uranium be synthesised?.- 3.7.2 The"s-process", the slow-process of neutron capture.- 3.7.3 The "r-process", the rapid-process of neutron capture.- 3.8 Cosmic Rays - A Strange Form of Matter.- 3.9 What Are the Conclusions for the Future of Mankind?.- 4 Chemical Evolution and the Evolution of Life: The Cosmic Phenomena.- 4.1 Chemical Evolution: Another Phase in the Evolution of Matter.- 4.1.1 Special case of the electromagnetic force: The chemical force.- 4.1.2 The actors in the chemical play.- 4.2 Chemical Synthesis Occurs in Cosmic Space.- 4.2.1 Interstellar gas contains very many, often very complex compounds.- 4.2.2 Some of the interstellar molecules exist in solid form.- 4.2.3 Comets: Rare and strange, but formidable, chemical reactors.- 4.2.4 Meteorites often consist of very "sophisticated" chemical compounds.- 4.2.5 "Organic molecules" on the Moon and planets.- 4.3 The Origin of the Planets.- 4.3.1 Have the planets been formed "by chance"?.- 4.3.2 The protoplanet, the first stage of evolution.- 4.3.3 The chemical evolution of the Earth: A complex and dramatic development.- 4.3.4 All stable elements present in the Universe exist on Earth.- 4.3.5 The history of the Earth has been influenced by the movement of the continents.- 4.3.6 The first phases of chemical evolution were driven by different energy sources and were influenced by a number of factors.- 4.4 Synthesis of Complex Molecules on the Primitive Earth.- 4.4.1 The primitive atmosphere includes mostly molecules containing hydrogen.- 4.4.2 The amino acids; their ease of synthesis.- 4.4.3 How were the large molecules, the polymers, produced?.- 4.5 What Is Life? The Need for a General Definition.- 4.5.1 Could life have originated spontaneously?.- 4.5.2 The physical aspect of life.- 4.5.3 What kind of elementary forces canplay the role of energy carriers for living systems?.- 4.5.4 What kind of elementary particles can play the role of carriers of life?.- 4.6 The Chemical Elements, Particularly the Light Elements, Are the Carriers of Life.- 4.6.1 Why are the light elements best fitted for this role?.- 4.6.2 Why is hydrogen oxide - water - the unique medium for living organisms?.- 4.6.3 The source of free energy for life: The stars of the Main Sequence..- 4.6.4 The chemical composition of the living organism is similar to the chemical composition of the Universe.- 4.6.5 Life is only possible in a Universe having the characteristics of our type of Universe.- 4.7 What Can We Hope to Know About the Spontaneous Formation of Terrestrial Life?.- 4.7.1 The problem: The uniqueness of life in our present state of knowledge.- 4.7.2 The protobionts: The first living structures.- 4.7.3 The evolution of the living being occurred at the switch-over point from one energy source to the next.- 4.8 Evolution of Living Beings.- 4.8.1 Genetic evolution.- 4.8.2 The evolution of Man.- 4.8.3 The evolution of the brain.- 4.9 What Are the Conclusions for the Future of Mankind?.- 5 The Eternal Cycle of Matter on the Earth.- 5.1 Matter on This Planet Is Almost Indestructible.- 5.1.1 How stable is terrestrial matter?.- 5.1.2 Terrestrial matter is isolated by the gravitational field; the amount of matter is constant.- 5.1.3 Division of the Earth into five "spheres".- 5.2 The Gaseous Sphere Acts in the Exchange Between the Other Spheres.- 5.2.1 The main components of the atmosphere.- 5.2.2 The most active component, oxygen, a product of the biosphere.- 5.2.3 Ozone: Modified oxygen which acts as a shield for the biosphere.- 5.2.4 The carbon cycle, a chain directly related to the flow of energy in the biosphereand technosphere.- 5.2.5 The "inert" nitrogen cycle, which controls the activity of the biosphere.- 5.2.6 The micro-components of the atmosphere, the troublesome "details".- 5.2.7 Dust particles, a troublesome constituent of the atmosphere.- 5.3 The Hydrosphere - A Crucial Factor in the Existence of the Biosphere.- 5.3.1 The cycling of water, the largest terrestrial material cycle.- 5.3.2 Quality of water, quality of life.- 5.3.3 Man's demand for water is gigantic.- 5.3.4 Drinking water, where purity counts.- 5.3.5 The erosion of the planetary surface.- 5.4 The Solid Earth, the Litosphere.- 5.4.1 The main components of the Earth's crust.- 5.4.2 The Earth's crust, the main source of materials for our civilisation.- 5.4.3 Metals "prepared" by Nature, the most widely used.- 5.5 Ordered Matter and Entropy.- 5.5.1 Concentration means increase of order and decrease of entropy.- 5.5.2 Impact of substances in very small amounts: Poisons.- 5.5.3 Material dissipation and waste formation increases entropy.- 5.6 What Are the Conclusions for Mankind's Future Development?.- 6 The Flow of Energy on the Earth.- 6.1 The Source of Free Energy on the Earth.- 6.1.1 The quality of energy: The ordered and disordered forms.- 6.1.2 The elementary forms of energy.- 6.1.3 How large is flux of energy?.- 6.2 The Energy Sources on the Earth.- 6.2.1. Solar energy - The most important source.- 6.2.2 Spectrum and albedo of solar light.- 6.3 Solar Energy and Climate.- 6.3.1 The solar energy flux is not constant.- 6.3.2 Solar energy is transformed into numerous forms and types of energy.- 6.3.3 The past and future of the terrestrial climate.- 6.3.4 The local climate depends on continental drift.- 6.4 Non-solar Terrestrial Energy Sources.- 6.4.1 Other non-solar flows of energyplay a small but not insignificant role.- 6.4.2 The importance of the amount of stored energy.- 6.5 How Much Energy Does Man Need?.- 6.5.1 Does man need energy at all?.- 6.5.2 The sources of energy are changeable.- 6.6 The Indirect Use of Solar Energy.- 6.6.1 The biosphere as Man's energy source for technology.- 6.6.2 Transformation of solar into kinetic energy: Wind.- 6.6.3 Transformed solar energy: The kinetic energy of falling water.- 6.6.4 The "insignificant" form of solar energy: The heat of the oceans.- 6.6.5 The best forms of stored solar energy: Oil and coal.- 6.7 The Direct Technological Use of Solar Energy.- 6.7.1 The simplest way: Space heating.- 6.7.2 Solar energy converted into electricity on the Earth"s surface.- 6.7.3 The extraterrestrial conversion of solar into electrical energy.- 6.8 Technological Use of Non-solar (Nuclear) Energy.- 6.8.1 The heaviest elements: The gift of the supernova.- 6.8.2 Geothermal energy results from the nuclear decay of radionuclides.- 6.8.3 The fission of the heavy nuclides is one of the most abundant terrestrial energy sources.- 6.8.4 Fusion: The second coming of nuclear energy.- 6.9 Are There Other Sources of Energy?.- 6.10 Energy Production as a Source of Dangerous Waste and Environmental Problems.- 6.10.1 Energy production and nonradioactive waste materials.- 6.10.2 Radioactive waste from nuclear energy.- 6.10.3 Are fission reactors really dangerous?.- 6.10.4 Radioactive waste and its management.- 6.10.5 Fusion: The controlled thermonuclear reactor - Is this the "clean" solution?.- 6.10.6 Thermal waste, the local and global problem.- 6.10.7 Surface waste in the production of energy.- 6.11 The Economics of Energy Production.- 6.11.1 The energy cost of energy.- 6.11.2 What is the price of energy?.- 6.12 WhatAre the Conclusions for the Future Development of Mankind?.- 7 The Biosphere: The Coupling of Matter and the Flow of Free Energy.- 7.1 The Biosphere: The Coupling of Matter and the Flow of Free Energy.- 7.2 The Terrestrial Biosphere: Mass and Productivity.- 7.2.1 The greatest component of the biosphere is, in terms of mass, in the form of trees.- 7.2.2 The biosphere's productivity does not match its pattern of distribution.- 7.2.3 The surprisingly simple chemical composition of the biosphere.- 7.3 The Magnitude of the Flow of Energy in the Biomass.- 7.3.1 The direct net flux of energy in the biosphere is some 92 TW.- 7.3.2 The total solar energy flux consumed by the biosphere.- 7.3.3 The biosphere in the past.- 7.3.4 The green plant is not only a synthesiser, it is also a water vapouriser.- 7.4 The Biosphere as a Source of Food for Mankind.- 7.4.1 How much free energy in the form of food does Man need?.- 7.4.2 Man requires numerous structural materials for his body.- 7.4.3 The winning of food from the biosphere.- 7.5 Agriculture, Source of Food for Humans.- 7.5.1 Agricultural requirements of the average man.- 7.5.2 Human food quality.- 7.6 Constraints on the Further Development of Agricultural Production.- 7.6.1 Can the area under cultivation be increased?.- 7.6.2 Can agricultural production be doubled over the next 50 years?.- 7.7 The Ocean. A Source of Human Food?.- 7.7.1 How productive is the ocean?.- 7.7.2 The ocean is an important source of proteins.- 7.8 Food Production Needs a Large Energy Input.- 7.8.1 Solar and technological energy input to agriculture.- 7.8.2 Single-Cell protein - A new food source.- 7.9 The Biosphere Is More than a Source of Food.- 7.10 What Conclusions Can Be Drawn for Mankind's Future Development?.- 8 Is the Future Development ofMankind on This Planet Possible?.- 8.1 Is It Possible to Consider the Future?.- 8.2 The Main Problem: The Increase of the World Population.- 8.2.1 Is it wrong to consider mankind as part of the biosphere?.- 8.2.2 The growth of world population in the past.- 8.2.3 The reference case used in this chapter - A stable world population of 8 billion.- 8.3 Problem No. 2: A Place on the Earth for Everyone.- 8.3.1 How much space will each inhabitant have in the future?.- 8.3.2 Organisation of space and transport: The energy lost.- 8.4 Problem No. 3: Food for Everyone.- 8.5 Problem No. 4: Material Resources for Everyone.- 8.5.1 Maximum recycling and minimum use.- 8.5.2 Material recycling and energy.- 8.6 The Ultimate Problem for the Future of Mankind: The Flow of Free Energy.- 8.6.1 Why energy?.- 8.6.2 The prognosis for energy consumption.- 8.6.3 How much energy is needed to produce the technological energy used by Man?.- 8.6.4 The future source of free energy.- 8.6.5 Not only the free energy sources are important but also the sinks!.- 8.7 The Future Climate of This Planet.- 8.7.1 Will the terrestrial climate remain favourable?.- 8.7.2 The possibility of controlling the terrestrial climate.- 8.8 The Quality of Life.- 8.9 What Conclusions Can Be Drawn Concerning the Future Development of Mankind?.- 9 The Distant Future of Mankind - Terrestrial or Cosmic?.- 9.1 The Natural Constants and the Future of the Universe.- 9.1.1 The very far future.- 9.1.2 How stable are the natural laws and constants?.- 9.2 The Future Development of the Universe.- 9.3 The Future of the Galaxy and the Sun.- 9.3.1 The stability of galaxies.- 9.3.2 How stable is the cosmic neighbourhood of the Solar system?.- 9.3.3 How stable, how predictable is the Sun?.- 9.4 The Future of the Planet Earth.- 9.4.1 Thestability of the planet.- 9.4.2 The fall of small cosmic objects and earthquakes.- 9.4.3 The future terrestrial climate.- 9.5 The Possibilities for Mankind: Self-destruction, Self-isolation, Expansion.- 9.6 Human Colonies in Space - Possibility or Nonsense?.- 9.7 The Existence of Other Planetary Systems with Intelligent Life.- 9.7.1 How many stars have planetary systems?.- 9.7.2 How many planets having intelligent life could exist?.- 9.8 The Extraterrestrial Exchange of Information.- 9.9 Summary of the Limits of World Population Growth.- 9.10 Human Galactic Expansion and the Drake Limit.- 9.10.1 The expansion velocity.- 9.10.2 The energy need for cosmic journeys.- 9.11 Is It Really Impossible to Colonise the Galaxies?.- 9.12 The Very Distant Future; Mankind on This Planet.- 9.13 What Are the Conclusions Concerning the Distant Future of Mankind?.