Microbial Pathogenesis: Infection and Immunity

Uday Kishore Annapurna Nayak Centre for Infection, Immunity and Disease Mechanisms, Biosciences, Brunel University, London, UK

1. The Complement System as a Viral Ta rget for Immune Evasion...1 Ajitanuj Rattan, Rewati Kasbe, Jayati Mullick and Arvind Sahu Abstract... 1 Introduction... 1 Role of Complement in Combating Viruses... 2 Complement Evasion by Viruses: Diverse Strategies... 6 Conclusion... 17 2. Modulation of Type I Interferon Response by RNA Viruses...28 Suchita Bhattacharyya Abstract... 28 Introduction... 28 RNA Viruses... 29 Type I Interferon System... 31 Modulation of Type I Interferon Response by RNA Viruses... 31 Conclusion... 33 3. Viroporins: Differential Functions at Late Stages of Viral Life Cycles...38 Francois Kien, Huailiang Ma, Stefan Diaz Gaisenband and Beatrice Nal Abstract... 38 Introduction... 38 Molecular Organizations and Ion Channel Activities of IAV M2, SARS-CoV E, HCV p7 and HIV- 1 Vpu Viroporins... 42 Differential Roles of Viroporins during Virus Morphogenesis and Release... 46 Conclusion... 53 xviii Contents 4. Mycobacterium tuberculosis: Innate Immune Recognition and Persistence...63 Mycobacterium tuberculosis: Innate Immune Recognition and Persistence...63 Munirah Abdul-Aziz and Anthony G. Tsolaki Abstract... 63 Introduction... 63 Initial Stages of M. tuberculosis Infection... 64 Macrophage Involvement and M. tuberculosis Persistence... 69 Granuloma Formation and M. tuberculosis Persistence... 70 Conclusion... 73 M. tuberculosis Infection... 64 Macrophage Involvement and M. tuberculosis Persistence... 69 Granuloma Formation and M. tuberculosis Persistence... 70 Conclusion... 73 M. tuberculosis Persistence... 69 Granuloma Formation and M. tuberculosis Persistence... 70 Conclusion... 73 M. tuberculosis Persistence... 70 Conclusion... 73 5. Candida and Candidiasis...82 Candida and Candidiasis...82 Thomas Hofken Abstract... 82 Introduction... 82 Medically Important Candida Species... 83 Pathogenicity Mechanisms... 83 Experimental Systems to Study Candidiasis... 84 Adherence... 85 Invasion... 86 Secreted Hydrolytic Enzymes... 87 Polymorphism... 88 Candida Species... 83 Pathogenicity Mechanisms... 83 Experimental Systems to Study Candidiasis... 84 Adherence... 85 Invasion... 86 Secreted Hydrolytic Enzymes... 87 Polymorphism... 88 Biofilm Formation... 92 Interaction with Bacteria... 95 Phenotypic Switching and Mating... 96 Metabolic Flexibility and Nutrition Acquisition... 96 Stress Adaptation... 97 Host Responses... 98 Antifungal Drugs and Drug Resistance... 99 Conclusion... 100 ... 92 Interaction with Bacteria... 95 Phenotypic Switching and Mating... 96 Metabolic Flexibility and Nutrition Acquisition... 96 Stress Adaptation... 97 Host Responses... 98 Antifungal Drugs and Drug Resistance... 99 Conclusion... 100 6. Mechanisms of Pathogenesis of Aspergillosis...115 Savneet Kaur, Kavita Kale, Taruna Madan and P. Usha Sarma Abstract... 115 Introduction... 115 Invasive Pulmonary Aspergillosis (IPA)... 116 Allergic Bronchopulmonary Aspergillosis (ABPA)... 127 Conclusion... 132 Contents xix 7. Airway Epithelium Interactions with ASPERGILLUS fumigatus...138 ASPERGILLUS fumigatus...138 Neelkamal Chaudhary Abstract... 138 Introduction... 138 Airway Epithelium Interaction with A. fumigatus... 139 Toll-Like Receptors... 140 Non-TLR Receptors... 142 Other Antimicrobial Mechanisms... 143 Conclusion... 144 A. fumigatus... 139 Toll-Like Receptors... 140 Non-TLR Receptors... 142 Other Antimicrobial Mechanisms... 143 Conclusion... 144 8. Anti-Fungal Innate and Adaptive Immune Responses...149 Uday Kishore, Suhair M. Abozaid and Mohammed N. Al-Ahdal Abstract... 149 Introduction... 150 Innate Immune Mediated Defense against Fungi... 151 Adaptive Immunity and Fungal Pathogens... 156 Conclusion... 159 9. Host-pa thogen interaction in Malaria and Trypa nosomiasis...167 Janez Ferluga, Annapurna Nayak, and Uday Kishore Abstract... 167 Introduction: Malaria, Background and Life Cycle of the Parasite... 168 Malaria Immunity and Chronicity Development... 170 Complement Involvement... 174 PfEMP1: Virulence and Pathogenesis Modulation... 175 Cerebral Malaria... 176 Placental Malaria... 177 EMP1: Virulence and Pathogenesis Modulation... 175 EMP1: Virulence and Pathogenesis Modulation... 175 Cerebral Malaria... 176 Placental Malaria... 177 P. falciparum Anaemia... 178 A Role of Red Cell Blood Groups in Malaria Virulence Modulaton... 179 Merozoite Erythrocyte Invasion... 179 Human African Trypanosomiasis (HAT)... 180 Parasite Life Cycle... 181 HAT Pathogenesis... 182 Evasion of Innate and Adaptive Immunity by Trypanosome... 184 Potential Involvement of the Complement System... 185 Genetic HAT and Host Diversity and Disease Phenotypes... 186 American Trypanosomiasis (Chagas Disease)... 187 Anaemia... 178 Anaemia... 178 A Role of Red Cell Blood Groups in Malaria Virulence Modulaton... 179 Merozoite Erythrocyte Invasion... 179 Human African Trypanosomiasis (HAT)... 180 Parasite Life Cycle... 181 HAT Pathogenesis... 182 Evasion of Innate and Adaptive Immunity by Trypanosome... 184 Potential Involvement of the Complement System... 185 Genetic HAT and Host Diversity and Disease Phenotypes... 186 American Trypanosomiasis (Chagas Disease)... 187 T. cruzi Life Cycle... 188 Cell Invasion... 188 Pathogenesis of Chagas Disease... 188 Chronic Chagas Disease... 189 Role of Adipose Tissue... 190 Cytokine Expression and Regulaton... 190 Complement and Immune Evasion... 191 Conclusion... 192 Life Cycle... 188 T. cruzi Life Cycle... 188 Cell Invasion... 188 Pathogenesis of Chagas Disease... 188 Chronic Chagas Disease... 189 Role of Adipose Tissue... 190 Cytokine Expression and Regulaton... 190 Complement and Immune Evasion... 191 Conclusion... 192 Life Cycle... 188 Life Cycle... 188 Cell Invasion... 188 Pathogenesis of Chagas Disease... 188 Chronic Chagas Disease... 189 Role of Adipose Tissue... 190 Cytokine Expression and Regulaton... 190 Complement and Immune Evasion... 191 Conclusion... 192 xx Contents 10. The Host Pathogen Interaction and Immunomodulation During Leishmaniasis...203 Surajit Bhattacharjee and Arijit Bhattacharya Abstract... 203 Introduction... 204 Initial Interaction and Phagocytosis... 205 Macrophage Functions Altered by Leishmania... 206 Microbicidal Free Radical Production... 207 Impairment of Antigen Presentation... 208 Modulation of Cytokine Production... 209 Chemokine and Chemokine Receptors in Leishmaniasis... 211 Cytokine-Chemokine Networks in Leishmaniasis... 213 Leishmania... 206 Microbicidal Free Radical Production... 207 Impairment of Antigen Presentation... 208 Modulation of Cytokine Production... 209 Chemokine and Chemokine Receptors in Leishmaniasis... 211 Cytokine-Chemokine Networks in Leishmaniasis... 213 Leishmania-Induced Alteration of Host Cell Signaling... 214 Toll-Like Receptors (TLRs)... 220 Immune Responses against Leishmania Infection... 221 Conclusion... 223 -Induced Alteration of Host Cell Signaling... 214 Leishmania-Induced Alteration of Host Cell Signaling... 214 Toll-Like Receptors (TLRs)... 220 Immune Responses against Leishmania Infection... 221 Conclusion... 223 -Induced Alteration of Host Cell Signaling... 214 -Induced Alteration of Host Cell Signaling... 214 Toll-Like Receptors (TLRs)... 220 Immune Responses against Leishmania Infection... 221Conclusion... 223 Leishmania Infection... 221 Conclusion... 223 11. Immune responses induced by pa rasitic worms...233 Janez Ferluga, Lubna Kouser and Uday Kishore Abstract... 233 Introduction... 234 Helminth Type-2 Immunity and Allergy... 235 Hygiene Hypothesis on Allergies Increase... 237 Examples of Type 2 Immunity... 237 Tissue-Parasite Variation in Type 2 Immunity... 238 Potential Complement Involvement in Helminth and Autoimmunity... 240 Complement Evasion... 242 Trichinellosis... 243 Filariasis... 244 Taeniasis... 245 Schistosomiasis... 246 Conclusion... 247 12. Pathogenic Persistence and Evasion mechanisms in Schistosomiasis...255 Annapurna Nayak and Uday Kishore Abstract... 255 Introduction... 256 Life Cycle into Intermediate and Vector Host... 257 Skin Penetration by Cercariae: Breaking the First Line of Defense... 259 Modulation of the Host's Immune Response... 260 Granulomas in Acute and Chronic Schistosomiasis... 263 Contribution of Various Immune Cells in the Immunopathology... 265 Complement Evasion by Schistosome Paramyosin... 265 Immune Modulation of the Snail... 267 Conclusion... 270 Contents xxi 13. TRANSMISSIBLE SPONGIFORM ENCEPHALOPATHIES- Passage from Gut to Brain...276 Daniel A. Mitchell Abstract... 276 Introduction... 277 The Replication of Infectious Prions... 277 The Importance of the Gut in TSEs... 278 Prion Proliferation in Lymphoid Tissues... 279 The Role of Dendritic Cells in Prion Trafficking... 279 The Role of the Complement System in Prion Disease... 280 Prion Passage to the Brain and Neurocytoxicity... 281 Conclusion... 282 ... 279 The Role of the Complement System in Prion Disease... 280 Prion Passage to the Brain and Neurocytoxicity... 281 Conclusion... 282