Materials and the Environment (eBook)

Front cover 1
Materials and the environment: Eco-informed material choice 4
Copyright page 5
Table of contents 6
Preface 8
Acknowledgments 12
Chapter 1. Introduction: material dependence 14
1.1 Introduction and synopsis 14
1.2 Materials: a brief history 15
1.3 Learned dependency: the reliance on nonrenewable materials 19
1.4 Materials and the environment 20
1.5 Summary and conclusion 24
1.6 Further reading 24
1.7 Exercises 25
Chapter 2. Resource consumption and its drivers 28
2.1 Introduction and synopsis 28
2.2 Resource consumption 29
2.3 Exponential growth and doubling times 37
2.4 Reserves, the resource base, and resource life 40
2.5 Summary and conclusion 47
2.6 Further reading 48
2.7 Exercises 48
Exercises using CES Eco Level 2 51
Chapter 3. The materials life cycle 52
3.1 Introduction and synopsis 52
3.2 The material life cycle 53
3.3 Life-cycle assessment: details and difficulties 55
3.4 Streamlined LCA 61
3.5 The strategy for eco-selection of materials 65
3.6 Summary and conclusion 68
3.7 Further reading 69
3.8 Appendix: software for LCA 71
3.9 Exercises 74
Chapter 4. End of first life: a problem or a resource? 78
4.1 Introduction and synopsis 78
4.2 What determines product life? 79
4.3 End-of-first-life options 80
4.4 The problem of packaging 83
4.5 Recycling: resurrecting materials 85
4.6 Summary and conclusion 91
4.7 Further reading 91
4.8 Appendix: designations used in recycle marks 92
4.9 Exercises 95
Chapter 5. The long reach of legislation 98
5.1 Introduction and synopsis 98
5.2 Growing awareness and legislative response 99
5.3 International treaties, protocols, and conventions 100
5.4 National legislation: standards, directives, taxes, trading tools 102
5.5 Economic instruments: taxes and trading schemes 106
5.6 The consequences 108
5.7 Summary and conclusion 110
5.8 Further reading 110
5.9 Exercises 111
Chapter 6. Ecodata: values, sources, precision 114
6.1 Introduction and synopsis 114
6.2 Data precision: recalibrating expectations 115
6.3 The eco-attributes of materials 116
6.4 Energy and CO[sub(2)] footprints of energy, transport, and use 124
6.5 Exploring the data: property charts 127
6.6 Summary and conclusion 134
6.7 Further reading 134
6.8 Exercises 139
Exercises using the ces software 140
Chapter 7. Eco-audits and eco-audit tools 142
7.1 Introduction and synopsis 142
7.2 Eco-audits 143
7.3 Case study: an electric kettle 149
7.4 Case study: a coffee maker 151
7.5 Case study: a portable space heater 152
7.6 Auto bumpers: exploring substitution 155
7.7 Family car: comparing material energy with use energy 157
7.8 Energy flows and payback time of a wind turbine 159
7.9 Computer-aided eco-auditing 161
7.10 Summary and conclusion 162
7.11 Further reading 162
7.12 Appendix: the CES eco-audit tool 162
Case study: a 2000 W electric hairdryer 165
7.13 Exercises 168
Exercises using the CES eco-audit tool 171
Chapter 8. Selection strategies 174
8.1 Introduction and synopsis 174
8.2 The selection strategy: choosing a car 175
8.3 Principles of materials selection 177
8.4 Selection criteria and property charts 183
8.5 Resolving conflicting objectives: tradeoff methods 187
8.6 Five useful charts 191
8.7 Computer-aided selection 197
8.8 Summary and conclusion 198
8.9 Further reading 199
8.10 Appendix: deriving material indices 200
8.11 Exercises 207
Exploring design using CES Edu level 2 ECO 209
Chapter 9. Eco-informed material selection 212
9.1 Introduction and synopsis 212
9.2 Which bottle is best? selection per unit of function 213
9.3 Crash barriers: matching choice to purpose 215
9.4 Deriving and using indices: materials for light, strong shells 218
9.5 Heating and cooling 222
9.6 Transport 228
9.7 Summary and conclusion 239
9.8 Further reading 240
Solutions to standard problems: (a) stiffness and strength 240
Solutions to standard problems: (b) heat flow 241
9.9 Exercises 241
Exercises Using the CES Edu Software 243
Chapter 10. Sustainability: living on renewables 244
10.1 Introduction and synopsis 244
10.2 The concept of sustainable development 245
10.3 The ecological metaphor 246
10.4 Sustainable energy 250
10.5 Sustainable materials 253
10.6 Summary and conclusion 256
10.7 Further reading 257
10.8 Exercises 257
Chapter 11. The bigger picture: future options 260
11.1 Introduction and synopsis 260
11.2 Material value 262
11.3 Carbon, energy, and GDP 267
11.4 Gathering clouds: threats[sup(6)] 270
11.5 Opportunities 272
11.6 Summary and conclusion 273
11.7 Further reading 274
11.8 Exercises 275
Chapter 12. Material profiles 278
12.1 Introduction and synopsis 278
12.2 Metals and alloys 280
Aluminum alloys 281
Magnesium alloys 283
Titanium alloys 285
Copper alloys 287
Lead alloys 289
Zinc die-casting alloys 291
Nickel-chromium alloys 293
Nickel-based superalloys 295
Low carbon steel 297
Low alloy steel 299
Stainless steel 301
Cast iron, ductile (nodular) 303
12.3 Polymers 305
Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) 307
Polyamides (Nylons, PA) 309
Polypropylene (PP) 311
Polyethylene (PE) 313
Polycarbonate (PC) 315
Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) 317
Polyvinylchloride (tpPVC) 319
Polystyrene (PS) 321
Polylactide (PLA) 323
Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA, PHB) 325
Epoxies 327
Polyester 329
Phenolics 331
Natural rubber (NR) 333
Butyl rubber 335
EVA 337
Polychloroprene (Neoprene, CR) 339
12.4 Ceramics and glasses 341
Brick 343
Stone 345
Concrete 347
Alumina 349
Soda-lime glass 351
Borosilicate glass (Pyrex) 353
12.5 Hybrids: composites, foams, and natural materials 355
CFRP (Isotropic) 357
GFRP (Isotropic) 359
Sheet molding compound (SMC) 361
Bulk molding compound (BMC) 363
Rigid polymer foam 365
Flexible polymer foam 367
Paper and cardboard 369
Plywood 371
Softwood: pine, along grain 373
Softwood: pine, across grain 375
Hardwood: oak, along grain 377
Hardwood: oak, across grain 379
Appendix: useful numbers and conversions 382
A.1 Introduction 382
A.2 Physical constants in SI units 382
A.3 Conversion of units, general 383
A.4 Stress and pressure 384
A.5 Energy and power 384
A.6 Fuels 385
A.7 Energy prices (2007 data) 386
A.8 Further reading 386
Index 388
A 388
B 388
C 388
D 389
E 390
F 391
G 391
H 392
I 392
J 392
K 392
L 392
M 393
N 394
O 394
P 394
Q 396
R 396
S 396
T 397
U 397
V 398
W 398
Z 398