Eastern Europe, Russia and Central Asia 2022

Europa Publications’ regional publications are compiled by a team of editors and researchers, with introductory and country-specific material provided by specialists in their field: Aida Aidarova. Independent professional specializing in international development assistance, social infrastructure projects and risk management. Shirin Akiner. Late Research Associate, Near and Middle East Section, School of Languages, Cultures and Linguistics, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, and Associate Fellow, Chatham House (Royal Institute of International Affairs), London, United Kingdom. Anders Åslund. Senior Fellow, Eurasia Center, Atlantic Council, Washington, DC, USA and Adjunct Professor, Center for Eurasian, Russian and East European Studies, Georgetown University, Washington, DC, USA. Kamil Całus. Research Fellow, Department for Ukraine, Belarus and Moldova, Ośrodek Studiów Wschodnich im. Marka Karpia (Marek Karp Centre for Eastern Studies), Warsaw, Poland, Editor of Spojrzenie na Wschód quarterly. Richard Connolly. Co-Director, Centre for Russian, European and Eurasian Studies; Senior Lecturer in Political Economy, University of Birmingham, United Kingdom, and Associate Fellow, Chatham House (Royal Institute of International Affairs), London, United Kingdom. Pál Dunay. Professor of NATO and European Security Issues, George C. Marshall European Center for Security Studies, Garmish-Partenkirchen, Germany. Payám Foroughi. Freelance consultant specializing in political economy, human rights, international relations, Central Asia, Middle East, and Afghanistan. Former Assistant Professor of Political Science and Public Administration at the American University of Afghanistan, and former Human Rights Officer with the OSCE mission in Tajikistan. Nicole Grajewski. International Security Fellow at the Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs, Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University, USA; Doctoral Candidate in International Relations, University of Oxford, United Kingdom. Edmund Herzig. Professorial Fellow in Iranian Studies, Wadham College, University of Oxford, United Kingdom. Galina Kolodzinskaia. Visiting Research Fellow, Norwegian Institute of International Affairs (NUPI), Oslo, Norway. Taras Kuzio. Professor, Department of Political Science, National University of Kyiv Mohyla Academy, Ukraine, and Non-Resident Fellow, Foreign Policy Institute, School of Advanced International Studies, Johns Hopkins University, Washington, DC, USA. Eric Lepisto. Anthropologist specializing in sociopolitical transformations in the former Soviet Union. Robert E. Looney. International consultant specializing in economic development and Distinguished Professor, Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, CA, USA. Ion Marandici. Lecturer in Political Science, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA. Elene Melikishvili. Analyst in political risk and international relations. Rasmus Nilsson. Teaching Fellow in Russian Foreign and Security Policy, UCL School of Slavonic and East European Studies, University of London, United Kingdom. Andrew Ryder. Researcher and consultant on regional economic development, regional geography, and sustainability. Ann-Mari Sätre. Associate Professor of Economics and Research Director, IRES Institute for Russian and Eurasian Studies, Uppsala University, Sweden. Anna Savchenko. Political scientist, researcher specializing in Kazakhstani politics, citizenship, statelessness, gender and social modernization. Vahram Ter-Matevosyan. Associate Professor, Chair of Political Science and International Affairs Program, American University of Armenia, Yerevan, Armenia.

PART ONE General Survey

Russian and Turkish Involvement in the South Caucasus since 1991

VAHRAM TER-MATEVOSYAN

Climate Change and its Mitigation in Eastern Europe, Russia and the South Caucasus

PÁL DUNAJ and AIDA AIDAROVA

Economies of Eastern Europe, Russia and Central Asia

ANDERS ÅSLUND

Poverty, Inequality and Social Welfare in Eastern Europe, Russia and Central Asia

ANN-MARI SÄTRE

Politics of Energy in the Caspian Sea Region

SHIRIN AKINER (revised by ROBERT E. LOONEY)

Appendix: The Religions of the Region

PART TWO Country Survey

Sections on geography (with map), history, chronology and economy, as well as statistical surveys, directories and bibliographies for each country.

ARMENIA

History VAHRAM TER-MATEVOSYAN

Economy EDMUND HERZIG (revised by the editorial staff)

AZERBAIJAN

History ERIC LEPISTO

Economy ERIC LEPISTO

Autonomous Republic: Naxçıvan

Azerbaijani Secessionist Territory: Nagornyi Karabakh (Artsakh)

BELARUS

History ANDREW RYDER

Economy ANDREW RYDER

GEORGIA

History ELENE MELIKISHVILI (revised by the editorial staff)

Economy ROBERT E. LOONEY

Autonomous Republic: Ajara

Georgian Secessionist Territories: Abkhazia, South Ossetia

KAZAKHSTAN

History ANNA SAVCHENKO (revised by the editorial staff)

Economy SHIRIN AKINER (revised by ROBERT E. LOONEY)

KYRGYZSTAN

History PAYÁM FOROUGHI, AIDA AIDAROVA and GALINA KOLODZINSKAIA

Economy PAYÁM FOROUGHI and AIDA AIDAROVA

MOLDOVA

History ION MARANDICI

Economy KAMIL CAŁUS

Autonomous Territory: Gagauzia

Moldovan Secessionist Territory: Transnistria

THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION

History RASMUS NILSSON

Economy RICHARD CONNOLLY

Members of the Russian Federation, grouped by: Central Federal Okrug, North-Western Federal Okrug, Southern Federal Okrug, North Caucasus Federal Okrug, Volga Federal Okrug, Urals Federal Okrug, Siberian Federal Okrug, Far Eastern Federal Okrug

TAJIKISTAN

History

Economy

Autonomous Province: Kuhistoni Badakhshon

TURKMENISTAN

History PAYÁM FOROUGHI and NICOLE GRAJEWSKI

Economy PAYÁM FOROUGHI and NICOLE GRAJEWSKI

UKRAINE

History TARAS KUZIO

Economy TARAS KUZIO

Disputed Territories: The Crimean Peninsula, The Donbas

UZBEKISTAN

History PAYÁM FOROUGHI

Economy PAYÁM FOROUGHI

Sovereign Republic: Qoraqalpog‘iston

PART THREE Who’s Who of Eastern Europe, Russia and Central Asia

PART FOUR Regional Information

REGIONAL ORGANIZATIONS

RESEARCH INSTITUTES

SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY (BOOKS)

SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY (PERIODICALS)